The Effect of the Kyoto-Protocol on the Earth Essay -- Environment Fos

The Effect of the Kyoto-Protocol on the Earth In the article Global-warming Rules Begin Feb.16 by Traci Watson published in USA Today, Watsons explanation is that this protocol on global warming is likely to have a ripple effect on the USA, even though U.S. leaders have bowed out of this treaty to avoid its potential impacts on the economy. It seems to other writers that carbon dioxide may not give way so much to global warming and that this protocol will have a bad influence upon the economy. On the up side, however, the amount of fossil displace use in the entire priming will certainly be decreased by the Kyoto Protocol. Consequently, improvement of air quality and environmental preservation in the entire undercoat should be promoted. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted in 1992 to address global warming and was brought into forte in 1994. The third session of the Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC (COP3) was held in Kyoto in 1997, whe re the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. The Protocol stipulates that 38 countries, including developed countries and economies in transition, will reduce their Green signboard Gases (GHGs) including CO2 respectively to total emissions 5.2% below the 1990 level during the period from 2008 to 2012. For example, reduction below 1990 levels of 8% is required for the EU, 7% for the U.S., 6% for Japan, and 0% for Russia. Even though the protocol was adopted, this treaty can take effect only if it gets approval from countries with an emissions cap whose aggregate 1990s emissions is more than 55% of the total CO2 emissions in 1990 of capped parties. The share of the U.S. in 1990 was 36.1%, that of Japan was 8.5% and that of Russia was 17.4%. This treaty had go... ...l basis. Consequently, what I want to suggest is that the rate of fossil fuel use in the entire earth will be decreased by the Kyoto Protocol. It is clear that improvements at least in air quality and environmental preserva tion in the entire earth are promoted by the plan. Furthermore, there is still the possibility of GHG reductions mitigating global warming. Works CitedPatterson, Tim. Climate Change. EnviroTruth.org. 10 April 2002. Tatsuyoshi, Saijo. The Kyoto Protocol and Global Environmental Strategies of the EU, the U.S. and Japan. January 2002. http//www.iser.osaka-u.ac.jp/saijo/pdffiles/kpjan02.pdfWatson, Traci. U.S., Not Part of Kyoto Pact, impart Still Feel its Effects. USA Today. 24 November 2004.

Andrew Carnegie On The Gospel Of Wealth :: essays research papers

Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland in 1835. His father, Will, was a weaver and a follower of Chartism, a popular exertion of the British working class that called for the masses to vote and to run for Parliament in order to help improve conditions for workers. The exposure to such political beliefs and his familys pauperisation made a lasting impression on young Andrew and played a significant role in his life after his family immigrated to the United States in 1848. Andrew Carnegie amassed wealth in the steel industry after immigrating from Scotland as a boy. He came from a poor family and had little formal education. The roots of Carnegies internal conflicts were ingrained in Dunfermline, Scotland, where he was born in 1835, the son of a weaver and political radical who instilled in young Andrew the values of political and economic equality. His familys poverty, however, taught Carnegie a different lesson. When the Carnegies emigrated to America in 1848, Carnegie determined to bring prosperity to his family. He worked many small jobs which included working for the Pennsylvania Railroad where he initiative recognized the importance of steel. With this recognition, he resigned and started the Keystone Bridge Company in 1865. He built a steel-rail mill, and bought out a small steel company. By 1888, he had a large plant. Later on he sold his Carnegie Steel Company to J. P. Morgans U.S. Steel Company after a serious, bloody amount strike.He saw himself as a hero of working people, yet he crushed their unions. The richest man in the world, he railed against privilege. A generous philanthropist, he shortened the wages of the workers who made him rich. By this time, Carnegie was an established, successful millionaire. He was a great philanthropist, donating over $350 million dollars to public causes, opening libraries, silver for teachers, and funds to support peace. In the end, he gave away about 90% of his own money to various causes. He als o preached to others to do the same as in giving money for education and sciences.The problem, however, was that there was such a contrast between the rich and the poor. By this he was referring to the inequalities in rights, hereditary powers, and such things. He also matte up we should have a continuum of forward progress, i.e. civilizing, industrializing.Apparently in his time there was a movement to drift back into a time when there was little locomote in modernizing and technologically advancing when "neither master nor servant was as well situated.

Southern Cyprus :: history

Confederate CyprusSouthern Cyprus as Terrorist State The most insidious and nefarious partner of terrorism against Turkey is Southern Cyprus. I will not deal in this work with the EOKA murders directed at the British and the Turkish Cypriots perpetrated by the Southern Cypriots striving for the union of the island with Greece, how the Southern Cypriots accommodated the Armenian ASALA organization, and got them to kill the Turkish diplomats. Here I will only disclose the relations of the Southern Cypriot administration with the Marxist-Leninist Maoist terrorist organization PKK. The reason why the rulers of Southern Cyprus embraced the ASALA and the PKK for 20 years is the hatred of Makarios for the Turkish State and the nation. The fact that same feelings are carried by Karamanlis Papandreou and similar Greek politicians has seriously endangered the security of the region. In the years following 1974, while the then Greek Prime Minister Karamanlis thoughtlessly and promptly withdraw ing. Greece from the military wing of the NATO, Makarios, following a parallel path, was turn of events Cyprus into a communist base. The policy followed by Karamanlis and Papandreou was the intimidation of the West. Moscow, striving to penetrate into the Eastern Mediterranean and to cause a collapse in the Hesperian Alliance, had sent the agents of all the communist bloc to Southern Cyprus. What made Southern Cyprus an international terrorism base is that policy. The number of so called Soviet, Polish, Czech, and Bulgarian technicians based in Southern Cyprus in 1976 was more than 1000. When 250 Cubans traveling between Syria and Southern Cyprus were added, that number was approaching to 1500. The militants of the extreme Middle Eastern Terrorist organizations was not ixicluded in that calculation. The one who watchful the ground for the operation of ending the influence of NATO in the Eastern Mediterranean was Vassos Lissarides, the Marxist advisor of Makarios. Lissarides, the founder of the socialist EDEK Party, is the person the ASALA before 1985, and the PKK today, on to the island, who brought to snipe Turkish targets. Lissarides, in speeches he made in the anti-Turkey meetings held in Athens and Paris in 1976 had explicitly said that they were preparing a new VietNam style fight in order to expel the Turks from the island. Lissarides played his own game for 40 years on the island and continues to do so. In this period, his connection with certain people has aflare(p) the attention of intelligence organizations.

Comparison Of Job And Odysseus Essays -- essays research papers

The agency of Job and Odysseus is controlled by God and the gods. Neither Job nor Odysseus subscribe agency when the gods are against them. The relationship between the divine and human agency is a well-established integrity in both the ancient Hebrew and ancient classical cultures. Many acts that could be attributed to human agency are often credited to gods, especially human errors or misdeeds. Humans try to forfeit a earnest deal of their agency to the gods willingly. Nevertheless the gods remove no reservations about revoking agency from humans. Neither Job nor Odysseus had agency when a god was against them.Job has no agency, no participation in God&8217s decision to make him the object of a wager. God does not give him the option to decline and he is presented with no opportunity in which he might refuse God outright. He has no control over the duration or intensity of his suffering. He is only at the mercy of God. There is nothing to give an indication of how much agenc y Job had before the wager. However the arguments Job makes in chapter three with thirty-seven suggest some agency, especially in his questioning of God &8220Does it seem good to thee to oppress, to despise the work of thy hands and favor the designs of the wicked? are thy days as the days of man, or thy years as man&8217s years, that thou dost seek out my iniquity and search for my sin, although thou knowest that I am not guilty, and there is none to deliver out of thy hand? (Job, chapter 10, verses 3, 5-7). We will assume Job has as much agency as one could who was &8220blameless and upright, one who feared God, and turned away from evil (Job, chapter 1, verse 1). The events that destroy Job&8217s property and children seem to be agency limiting by their really nature. To Job, the entire chain of incidents must have appeared as a string of unfortunate coincidences. There was no element of predictability, no chance for Job to fasten for or thwart Satan&8217s plan. Job was blind sided. His agency was restricted by his limited knowledge of what was happening around him. The events Satan chose as a means to obliterate Job&8217s possessions and his children, were random and uncontrollable for Job. There was no room for any expression of agency on his part. Job&am... ...erience a loss of agency because of a god. There is one significant difference that stands out between Job and Odysseus. That is the reason for their loss of agency and suffering. The reason in for Odysseus&8217 torment is obvious he blinded Poseidon&8217s son. How anyone could not expect some form of vengeance, and sometimes I get the feeling Odysseus is caught unaware by Poseidon, is a mystery to me. The rationale behind Job&8217s reduction in agency is much less clear and is never addressed by God, who was an accessory to the whole affair by knowingly allowing it to take place. The comforters suggest possible explanations, unhidden sin or a lesson from God, but neither suggestions are confir m or denied. The reason God accepted Satan&8217s wager remains a playground for speculation. When the plans of the gods, or God, are against them, neither Odysseus nor Job have control over the direction their lives take. They can only contemplate why it is happening and wait for it to end. Of course, once peace is made with the gods, agency is restored and Job and Odysseus crop to the lives waiting and watching, for it is the divine that controls their agency.

The Mechanics of War :: War Statistics Papers

The Mechanics of WarRecently a new trend has taken up Wall Street. Savvy element firms have realized that the market is probably controlled by some rules, and those rules have to be found to make more money with the least risk. They hired galore(postnominal) mathematicians to look for any formulas that would seem to express the market. Those analyzed previous market trends and used laws of statistics to try to predict the future of the market. The funny thing is that at generation this approach actually act uponed. It yielded a slightly more than fifty percent accuracy, and that was enough. (When dealing with tremendous amounts, even a small percentage is not meager.) Statistics work for everything when there is a lot of it. They work for money, molecules, atoms, star systems, and even people. People tend to adhere to statistics when there is a fair amount of people to foul the occasional fluctuations in human behavior. Many things we do depend on statistics. Take struggle for example. War is a very good example, since the outcome depends more on the general strategy of the whole war, than on individual soldiers. It follows definite rules that can be expressed in formulas. The individual people in war tend to become statistics, in the eyes of the high command, the public, as well as in their own perception. Tim OBrien wonderfully illustrates this in his essay How to show a True War Story. He relates that there is no point to any events or actions according to the perception of the soldier during a war. You smile and think, ... whats the point? (469) he says. A person then becomes nothing more than a statistic -- a part of a whole behaving in a hit-or-miss way. If there is no point to existence, then his actions are truly random. Something truly random can be easily studied, stimulated, expressed in some numbers, percentages, probabilities. This randomness of the soldier is what the whole military apparatus depends on. Consider if the life of a soldier during war had a point, if he realized that there is some profound meaning, wouldnt he strive toward the goal assigned by that meaning? He would, for that is in human nature. Now, if there was no meaning in his perception, he could easily be persuaded that a particular thing must be done. He will obediently follow.

J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings Essay -- J.R.R. Tolkien Lord Rings

J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the doughnuts matchless send for to rule them all,One address to find them,One skirt to bring them alland in the Darkness bind them(Tolkien, The Two Towers 233)One of the masters of British literary productions, J.R.R. Tolkien was able to create a fantasy world with an imperishable supply of parallelisms to reality. The fantasy world was found in the Lord of the Rings. Tolkien is able to create wonderful symbolism and meaning aside of what would otherwise be considered nonsense. He creates symbolism and meaning by mastering his own world and his own language. To deduct the symbolism of The Ruling Ring, or The One Ring, one must recognize the events, which take place from the time of the rings mental hospital until the time of its destruction. One must also gravel an understanding of the characters and events that are valuable in the story. In this paper, we will learn the background of Tolkiens life and the history of the One Ring. The history of t he One Ring will include its creation, its effect on mortals, and its destruction. By learning the One Rings history, one can understand its symbolism.John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, an English prentice and storyteller, became interested in language at an early age. During his schooling, Tolkien was mostly interested with the languages of Northern Europe. His interests included both ancient and innovational languages. Tolkiens interest in language leads to his profession and his own hobby. He invented languages.The history of the One Ring starts before the Lord of the Rings. The ring is created in the appropriate The Silmarillion. The creation of the One Ring is found in The Silmarillion after the fall of Morgoth. At the time, Sauron wants to influence all of the people in Middle Earth. To gain moderate of the people, Sauron convinced them that he had ripe(p) intentions. Eventually the people sided with Sauron, and created the Rings of Power. Sauron created the One Ring in secret s o he would be able to control the other rings. This gave Sauron control of the people. The creation of the One Ring, and the essence of its power follows here. And their power was bound up with it, to be subject wholly to it and to last tho as long as it too should last. And much of the strength and will of Sauron passed into that One Ring for the power of the Elven Rings was very great, and that which should g... ... end of time.BibliographyAdams, Robert M. The Land and Literature of England. New York W W Norton and Company, 1983.Bloom, Harold. Modern Fantasy Writers. New York Chelsea House Publishers, 1995.Grotta, Daniel. The Biography of J.R.R. Tolkien. Philadelphia Running call down, 1978.Dodsworth, Martin. The Penguin History of Literature. England Penguin Books, 1994.Isaacs, Neil David. Tolkien and the Critics. Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Press, 1968.Isaacs, Neil David. Tolkien New Critical Perspectives. Lexington University Press of Kentucy, 1981.Grundy, Stephan. R hinegold. New York Bantam, 1994.Shippey, T.A. J.R.R. Tolkien. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 2001.Tolkien, J.R.R. The sept of the Ring. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 2002.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Return of the King. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Silmarillion. New York Ballantine, 1995.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Two Towers. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J.R.R. Tree and Leaf. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1989.Tyler, J.E.A. The Tolkien Companion. New York locomote Books, 1976. J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings Essay -- J.R.R. Tolkien Lord Rings J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings One Ring to rule them all,One Ring to find them,One Ring to bring them alland in the Darkness bind them(Tolkien, The Two Towers 233)One of the masters of British Literature, J.R.R. Tolkien was able to create a fantasy world with an endless supply of parallelisms to reality. The fantasy world was found in the Lord of the Ring s. Tolkien is able to create wonderful symbolism and meaning out of what would otherwise be considered nonsense. He creates symbolism and meaning by mastering his own world and his own language. To understand the symbolism of The Ruling Ring, or The One Ring, one must understand the events, which take place from the time of the rings creation until the time of its destruction. One must also develop an understanding of the characters and events that are important in the story. In this paper, we will learn the background of Tolkiens life and the history of the One Ring. The history of the One Ring will include its creation, its effect on mortals, and its destruction. By learning the One Rings history, one can understand its symbolism.John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, an English scholar and storyteller, became interested in language at an early age. During his schooling, Tolkien was mostly interested with the languages of Northern Europe. His interests included both ancient and modern languag es. Tolkiens interest in language leads to his profession and his own hobby. He invented languages.The history of the One Ring starts before the Lord of the Rings. The ring is created in the book The Silmarillion. The creation of the One Ring is found in The Silmarillion after the fall of Morgoth. At the time, Sauron wants to control all of the people in Middle Earth. To gain control of the people, Sauron convinced them that he had good intentions. Eventually the people sided with Sauron, and created the Rings of Power. Sauron created the One Ring in secret so he would be able to control the other rings. This gave Sauron control of the people. The creation of the One Ring, and the essence of its power follows here. And their power was bound up with it, to be subject wholly to it and to last only as long as it too should last. And much of the strength and will of Sauron passed into that One Ring for the power of the Elven Rings was very great, and that which should g... ... end of t ime.BibliographyAdams, Robert M. The Land and Literature of England. New York W W Norton and Company, 1983.Bloom, Harold. Modern Fantasy Writers. New York Chelsea House Publishers, 1995.Grotta, Daniel. The Biography of J.R.R. Tolkien. Philadelphia Running Press, 1978.Dodsworth, Martin. The Penguin History of Literature. England Penguin Books, 1994.Isaacs, Neil David. Tolkien and the Critics. Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Press, 1968.Isaacs, Neil David. Tolkien New Critical Perspectives. Lexington University Press of Kentucy, 1981.Grundy, Stephan. Rhinegold. New York Bantam, 1994.Shippey, T.A. J.R.R. Tolkien. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 2001.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Fellowship of the Ring. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 2002.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Return of the King. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Silmarillion. New York Ballantine, 1995.Tolkien, J.R.R. The Two Towers. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1994.Tolkien, J .R.R. Tree and Leaf. Boston Houghton Mifflin, 1989.Tyler, J.E.A. The Tolkien Companion. New York Pan Books, 1976.

How Groups Can Influence People in Negative and Positive Ways Essay

How themes dejection influence populate in shun and in plus ways. By definition a congregation is a number of tribe who be regarded as a unit. They atomic number 18 united by a shared interest or belief, be that religion, sport, or politics. All groups conduct their give identicalness, we as people have multiple ones. From a social perspective, an individual is often coiffured by who they are and what they do a parent, a electric shaver or a friend, and by what line of work or study they are in.Cultural identity is defined by ethnicity, and group identity comes from having a sense of belonging, having a them and us mentality. This essay will look at how different roles and identities can influence social behaviour when belonging to a group, some(prenominal) in a negative and a positive way. Tajfel and Turner (1979, cited in spoors et al. , 2011) developed the social identity theory, a theory that describes how belonging to a group forms a significant part in the indivi dual group members self-concept. Having a we rather than an I concept.They suggest there are three key stages to joining a group. The first being social categorisation this is for the individual to be given a label Christian, gay, snob, Geordie, disabled are a few examples. The next stage is social identification where the individual takes on the groups roleistics and becomes defined by the groups behaviour. The lowest stage is social comparison members of a group perspective it from a positive point of view, often forming an elevated opinion of the group they belong to. citizenry can take on defined roles when involved in group activity influence on these roles can be from observing other members of the groups behaviour, or a personal representation of the defining role. Zimbardo (1971, cited in spoors et al. , 2011) conducted an experiment to determine how roles at bottom a group can influence peoples behaviour. During the experiment participants were given a guard or a priso ner role. The experiment ended prematurely as participants took their roles to extremes, guards became increasingly aggressive, and prisoners became withdrawn and emotionally distressed.This could be an example of how peoples expectations of a role they have no experience in can influence behaviour. They may have been influenced by other members actions, or by a stereotypical character portrayed by the media, leading them to have behaved negatively and out of character. Kondo (1990 cited in spoors et al. , 2011) is a Japanese/American student. In her personal account of living in Japan, she writes how she finds the roles and expectations of her by the Japanese family she is staying with became quite challenging and disturbing.She felt her have identity was slowly being replaced with the obligation to act appropriately to whichever role she was playing, be it guest, daughter, student or a Japanese woman. During a traditional tea ceremony Kondo received high praise from her Japanese teacher for her performance. She states she was inordinately pleased by the praise but did feel she had to escape before she changed completely, this shows both negative and positives to social conformity. Kondo feeling pressured into conforming to located standards and rules can in like manner apply to some group behaviour.In 1997 the heavens gate furore lost thirty nine members to mass self-destruction. They believed their souls would be transferred to a spaceship. These members may have become too dependent on the group, maybe so atrocious of their leaders to not go ahead, or the sense of belonging and comfort they felt being part of the group they had such conviction in their beliefs they carried the suicide through. This is group conformity to the extreme, and in this case had a negative outcome, but some form of conformity is necessary in society so it can be a benefit to the majority.Belonging to a group can lead to an in-group out-group culture. With groups being defined and identified by their roles, beliefs and behaviour, comparisons are often make between one groups identity and others, be it sports teams, gangs, social groups, religion, or different cultures. Having an inflated opinion of the individuals group can encourage them to view any other group as inferior this can lead to competition and conflict between groups. A good example of a them and us situation is the robbers cave experiment conducted by Sherif (1961 cited in spoors et al. 2011) A group of boys staying at summer camp were split into two groups, and a tournament was set up. The good sportsmanship of the group quickly turned into aggression and prejudice. Although once given tasks where the two groups had to work together, they boys worked positively and cooperated with each other. In-group traits can occur even where there is no history of involvement between the groups involved. Taifel (1971 cited in spoors et al. , 2011) conducted an experiment where a virtual group situation was set up.Participants were given a task believe they were part of a group, but were in fact working as an individual. In-group favouritism was still present. Loyalty and cooperation is a positive outcome for the in-group mentality, but it has its negative traits in the hostility and aggression it can provoke towards the out-group. Emotional values are given to the individual depending on the behaviour of the group anti-social behaviour would define them in a negative way, just as being seen to belong to a good kind or charitable group would have a positive emotional effect on the individual. To conclude, evidence shows there are many positives to belonging to a group. The individual gains a sense of identity, both within the group and in society. Self-esteem, self-worth and sense of belonging are increased. Close bonds are formed with others who share similar characteristics. Having an elevated sense of status within the group can lead to positive behaviour. Self-confidence is in creased due to a feeling of safety. Support, praise and encouragement from other group members have a positive impact on behaviour.There are also many negative aspects to group behaviour, members may be influenced to behave out of character from their usual identity through controlling methods within the group dynamic, in some cases separating the group entirely from accepted behaviour within society. Prejudice, violence and discrimination can also be a result of the us and them situation. The heavens gate example could be viewed as both positive and negative, depending on the perspective, the group members and society would have conflicting views.

The Subject of Affirmative Action

Considering the subject of favourable consummation the following questions frequently argon raised Is in that respect a clear under birthing of approbatory pull through roles/ designs? What are the pros/cons of these programs? What are the loop holes in the system? Does higher status play a role in optimistic work? Addressing these key questions may help us both in our daily routine, as administrators and/or potential administrator in the public/ tete-a-tete sector. Affirmative meet programs d iodinout the United States have long been a controversial issue particularly concerning employment practices (public/private) and university student and/or staff recruitment. virtu every(prenominal)y public agencies have some type of instituted affirmative consummation program. According to Cheryl Perry-League, Director of Equal Opportunity of the Port of Oakland, every business operating on Port of Oakland owned land moldiness have a standing affirmative action program on record and businesses bidding to do run away for the Port of Oakl and must have an acceptably diverse workforce. To understand the role and/or goals of affirmative actions programs we should define what the broad definition of what affirmative action is and what ca utilize its development. The kind affirmative action was used in a racial discrimination context.Executive Order No. 10,925 issued by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. The shape indicated that federal contractors should take affirmative action to ensure job applicants and employees are treated without regard to their race, creed, or field origin. A person could define this disceptation as an order to imply equal access and nonhing else. Subsequently, Executive Order 11246 issued by President Johnson in September 1965, mandated affirmative action goals for all federally funded programs and moved monitoring and enforcement of affirmative action programs out of the whiteness House and into the Labor Department.Affirmative acti on refers to various efforts to deliberately take race, sex, and national origins into account to remediation past and current effects of discrimination. Its primary goal is to ensure that women and minorities are widely represented in all occupations and at all organizational levels (Tompkins, 1995, p. 161). Another definition of affirmative action according to Barbara Bergmann is planning and acting to end the absence of authentic kinds of mess-those who belong to groups that have been subordinated or left(p) out-from certain jobs and schools (1997 p. 7).Tracing the history of affirmative action, laws against racial discrimination have proved inadequate for work bureau integration because they frequently provide remedies only subsequently the fact. Affirmative action requires proactive steps to provide equal opportunities in employment as well as access to education. Many affirmative action programs were born from Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title VII referenc es to affirmative action programs were brought rough because of the history of discrimination in the United States, certain groups are viewed as disadvantage in the current marketplace.Thus affirmative action laws impose temporary requirements to correct underutilization of these groups (e. g. , goals and timetables for increasing the number of minorities and women in a facility) (Gutman, 1993, p. 9). Prior to these laws and the Title VII law, the U. S workforce was primarily dominated by white males. Although, still somewhat white male dominated, quotas that were designed through affirmative action programs have helped come upon some representation of women and minorities in the current work force. Some remedies brought about through affirmative action programs involve goal setting, quotas, and timetables.The term goal refers to specific outcomes which, when achieved, will result in equal employment opportunity and equitable representation (Hall & Albrecht, 1979, p. 47-78). Goa ls and hiring quotas vary somewhat in their fu nction. Goals generally are long range plans that organizations use and there are no expected minimum or maximum limitations. Quotas by comparison, establishes a decided number of people who must be hired. A Company cannot by law, use quotas unless it has been ordered to do so by a court to remedy a past action (Hall & Albrecht, 1979, p. 47-78).Deficiency correction is the primary target of goal setting through affirmative action. For an organization to be effective with goals, they must be realistic, attainable, and monitored by the human resource department. Affirmative action programs generally achieve their set goals through several common practices called outreach programs. First, there are superfluous recruiting programs where women and minorities will most likely be found. These additional outreach programs often target black universities and female dominated educational facilities. A second outreach program involves special a dvertising.Generally, this is also implemented in areas that are heavily populated by women and minorities similar to that of recruiting programs. Through outreach programs like the ones mentioned above, goals can be attained to achieve equity and representation without forgoing higher educated and skilled applicants. These programs can be justified because discrimination is still apparent in the United States today. A 1990 field of honor by the University of Chicagos National Opinion Research Center found that the majority of white Americans still believe blacks to be inferior.For example, 53% of non-black respondents give tongue to they thought blacks were less intelligent than whites, 62% said they thought blacks were less patriotic, 62% said they thought blacks were lazier, and 78% said they thought blacks preferred to bed off welfare. The National Assessment of Educational Progress, a series of national streamerize tests, evaluates students on their proficiency in readin g, writing and science. They divide and co mpare these results to kick downstairs understand the effectiveness of public schools.Their results suggest a large imbalance in the educational quality genuine by whites and other races. The most perceptible imbalance in the three fundamentals of learning was the most important, reading. When students cannot read well, they usually cannot succeed in other subject areas. With the background of affirmative action and its programs established we should evaluate some of the problems with affirmative action and if affirmative action programs work. Opponents against affirmative action programs often believe that the system currently in place is a misuse of the original intent of affirmative action.The programs as they apply now are detrimental to the operation of the job market, to white males, and to the groups it is supposed to benefit. They push contend affirmative action causes reverse discrimination. It is not good practice for Opponent s pro affirmative action to use it as a way to shake up for past discrimination. Another problem caused by affirmative action is that it often places a stigma on any groups, which receive preferential treatment, particularly on individuals who earn positions because of their ability.Opponents of affirmative action programs believe that these programs when handled properly through the human resources department within an organization can minimize the negative references received regarding hiring practices. Nye states that positive information regarding an employees job qualifications should minimize assumptions of incompetence associated with affirmative action hiring programs. In other words, when co-workers have information that clearly describes an individuals job qualifications, they should be less likely to assume that he or she was hired solely on race or gender(1998).By making this information available within the organization, it would help remove the pressures from the emp loyee and co-worker regarding the hi ring practices. This could further help the organization in the area of productivity, public transaction within the community, and morale. By increasing morale, you maybe able to retain more employees, recruitment made easier, and motivate employees into a very competitory workforce. Opponents of affirmative action also do not believe that women and minorities will be treated fairly without affirmative action programs.Opportunities in todays workplace are extremely competitive. Glazer states that the battle over affirmative action today is a contest between a clear principle on the one hand and a clear reality on the other. The principle is that ability, qualifications, and merit, independent of race, national origin, or sex should prevail when one applies for a job or promotion, or for selective institutions for higher education, or when one bids for contracts.The reality is that strict adherence to this principle would result in few African Americans getting jobs, admissio s, and contracts (1998). With that world said, women and minorities cannot possibly have a fair chance in todays society without positive affirmative action programs. However, with affirmative action, it has been noted that their incentives to achieve success may be decreased because preferential treatment can lead to the patronization of minorities and women workers and students. By patronization I mean the setting of a lower standard of expected accomplishment because of the belief that these people are not as capable of meeting a higher standard (Loury, 1997).With a white male dominated workforce, negative public perceptions, and low self-esteem of applicants, affirmative action offers a solution for race and gender equity. Further stated, everyone in America should be afforded equal opportunity. If this cannot be achieved voluntarily, then we must continue to take action to remedy these situations. Opponents of affirmative action won a landmark victory, in 1998, wi th the passage of Californias Proposition 209. This proposition abolished all public-sector affirmative action programs in the state in employment, education and contracting.Clause(C) of Prop. 09 permits gender discrimination that is reasonably necessary to the normal operation of public education, employment and contracting. In 1998, The ban on use of affirmative action in admissions at the University of California went into effect. UC Berkeley had a 61% drop in admissions, and UCLA had a 36% decline. This decline strengthens the position of the Pro side of affirmative action. However, a contingency plan has been established. According to a source (who asked to remain nameless), UC Berkeley has a program to actively recruit more minority students that falls out of the guidelines established by prop. 09. These types of loop holes can in the long run hurt the various studies on the effectiveness of anti-affirmative action laws.Loop holes are exceptions to the rules or standards. Its a way around the system. Opponents for affirmative action business leader feel that the majuscule State government utilized such a loop hole in 1997. Under an affirmative action program criticized as the ultimate example of preferential treatment by supporters against affirmative action, the Washington State government hired more white men than African Americans did or any other minority group.In fact, white men fell second to white women being hired (Brune). The program in question is Washington States plus three program, according to Tom Brune of the Seattle Times, allows the state to hire people who qualify for affirmative action over finalists with higher job-test scores. White men qualify because the states affirmative action policy cover not only people of color and women, but also Vietnam-era veterans, alter veterans and people with disabilities. Majority of the veterans are white men and nearly half of them are disabled in the State of Washin gton .Another example of how affirmative action works for the disadvantaged can be found in Hayward, California. Bonnie Kellogg was admitted into the governments Small Business Administration program that gives her company competitive advantages in its quest for government and large corporate contracts. Prior to 1995, Kelloggs chances of getting into this program, officially known as the 8(a) Business Development program, would have been bring down to none. However, in 1995 court thought stemming from a law suit by a white business owner alleging reverse discrimination relaxed government standards.This ruling as allow for whites, Egyptians and Iranians, who fall outside the SBAs minority designation easier access to the program. This relaxation of the rules as helped non-minorities business owners greatly. Report K. Oanh Ha of the Knight rider Tribune finds a, a big statistical change. From 1968 until mid-1998, only 40 businesses owned by whites and non-minorities out of 13,40 0 firms nationally were admitted, were admitted into the 8(a) program. So far this year, 74 non-minority companies have been admitted. 1999) senior status must be examined because in my opinion it is the most widely used preferential treatment policy in the American workplace? With affirmative action being view as preference by many Americans and higher status being an unchallenged rule-of-thumb. In an article by Paul Rockwell he explains, The seniority system may be legitimate, but it is no less preferential in its execution than affirmative action. When layoffs take place by seniority, many highly skilled women, many well-qualified people of color, among others, are bumped out of their jobs by less qualified older white males.In a seniority system, the fit hired is the first fired, whether the employee is more skilled and competent than an employee protected by seniority. (1999). Richard Lester, author of Manpower Planning, believes that seniority places less qualifi ed employees ahea d of employees who are often better educated, more skilled in computers. Arthur Whitehill & Shin Ichi Takezawa in Work Ways, concluded the same thoughts Younger worker in some cases are more competent than older workers because of them being better education, greater adaptability and physical fitness.The public sector and much of the private sector have recognized seniority for quite an sometime. We can find this system practiced by older teachers at various universities who are often protected by tenure. Professor Daniel Barber has up to now stated in candid conversion that when he was the department chair for the Master of Public Administration he took care of the tenured faculty first. keen this, why do Opponents of affirmative action, have appeared to be, judgmental of about so-called merit and preference, why isnt there the same concern about the biggest workplace exception to strict meritocracy Seniority?Seniority is yet another way to protect th e good o boys networks. Fo und in many of the historically white male dominated professions, for example, Firefighters, police, school superintendents, and college professors. Coming from a public sector background (Disabled Army War Veteran, Bureau of Prisons voice administrator, Department of Veterans Affairs administrator, and to many federal internships to count) I support the seniority system in those places where affirmative action is still in place. Workplace should resound the diversity of the community it serves, seniority is a fair system of labor management relations.Seniority gives employees for the personnel problems and private preferences of an employer. However, seniority is a widely used exception to strict merit system only if the workplace is democratic and applied with affirmative action the workplace can become more inclusive. Where affirmative action is repealed, seniority loses some of its legitimacy. I argue that only loses some of its legitimacy be cause I personally was retained as an employee in a seniority situation. I was the last hired but I was not fired. In short, the scope of seniority and affirmative action are similar.The goal of seniority is job security and affirmative action is integration both goals are good for America. The American labor movement has a major second in seniority. The movement should embrace affirmative action because in good conscience it should not take advantage of one and not honor the other. Basically, benefiting for seniority practices but opposing affirmative action for others. If affirmative action is repealed, seniority should go as well. Labor unions and movements should concentrate on saving affirmative action.At a time when all progressive social policies are under attack, unity between women, labor, and people of color is imperative. Seniority and affirmative action should stand or fall together. CONCLUSION Ultimately, the controversy surrounding affirmative action programs t oday will continue into the future. Soci ety as a whole does not appear to be ready to relinquish its negative perception of the hiring practices brought about by Title VII. However, the benefits brought about this act has greatly increased the opportunity for women and minorities in employment that may not have otherwise been available.These programs have offered hope to some if not all-socioeconomic groups that they will be afforded the opportunity of equal employment and/or representation in our society. Furthermore, human resource departments in the public sector will have to become more skilled in implementing positive affirmative action programs if we are to reap the full benefits from them. Finally, Affirmative action is not a cure-all. It will not eliminate racial discrimination, nor will it eliminate challenger for scare resources.Affirmative action programs can only ensure that everyone has a fair chance at what is available. They cannot direct us to the social pol icies necessary so people do not have to compet e for scarce resources in the first place. The larger question to ask is why are there not enough decent paying, challenging and safe jobs for everyone? Why are there not enough seats in the universities for everyone who wants an education? Expanding opportunity for people of color means expanding not only their access to existing jobs & education, but also removing the obstacles that cause these resources to be limited.

James Joyce Concept of Epiphany Essay

James Joyce conception of epiphany is one concerned with a move away from religious transcendentalism towards secular meanings in which the personal experience of the moment harks to a transcendental sense of belonging, awe or inspiration (Barry 2002). This is notably captured in two of his texts know as A Portrait of an Artist and The Dubliners. Using two examples taken from these two texts alongside critiques put forward by certain literary critics, we depart attempt to analyse his concept of epiphany in relation to other significant literary devices that he employs.In Joyces text A Portrait of an Artist, the record can be viewed as moving away from the notion of an objective account of reality. This rejection of realism, prevalent in the realist novel of the early nineteenth century, results in a certain form of ambiguity that has come to define more fellow modernists.Divorcing from the associated omniscient narrative styles of the earlier periods, modernist writers began t o take on a great scarper of new forms and styles, one of which be the employment of the epiphany formerly used commonly in religious writing (Bennet & Royle 2004). In A Portrait of an Artist, this acts in ever-changing the perspective of reality that is being explored by the write, which is achieved through an indulgence of ambiguity rather than process of deduction.This ambiguity is captured in a vagueness in both the authors narrative and the helps thoughts throughout the text. For instance, in one extract taken from the text expressing the thoughts of the protagonists direct experience, we can chatter this ambiguity spell into an epiphany that refers to the experience itself and acts in combining it with other subjective experiences. For instance, on reflection of his own reaction or reply to the direct experience he is chronicle for, the protagonist enters into the ambiguity of his own thoughts, stating thatO how c aged and strange it was to think of that All the dark w as cold and strange. There were pale strange faces there, great eye like carriage-lamps. They were the ghosts of murderers, the figures of marshals who had received their death-wound on battlefields far away over the sea. What did they wish to say that their faces were so strange? (Joyce 2003, 59)In this extract we can see through the division of perspective and perception that the narrator is not observing, documenting or accounting for the experience of the protagonist. Rather, he is allowing the subject the freedom to recall the experience and, in doing so, transcend both the objective reality being accounted for and the form of the literary function. This allows the conscious mind of the character to question their own direct response and interpret the reality of the moment by way of an epiphany.This shift in perspective from the reality being charted by the omniscient observer to that of a reflective and questionable account being drawn out in the description of the experienc e itself is referred to by the scholar and critic Peter Barry. In his text Beginning speculation Barry suggests that this is the loss of the real, that he warns can lead to legitimizing a callous indifference to suffering (Barry 2006, 89). However, this loss of the real is perhaps the antithesis of what Joyce is attempting to evoke in his concept of the epiphany.In essence, the loss of the real is something of an awakening of the transcendental marking the beginning of a psychological reality. This premise could perhaps be seen as a menses of consciousness that could be used to examine the transcendental connectedness between the people and members of a community on the basis of intellectual, as well as objective, reality.Through the techniques incorporated in this style of narrative it is possible to allow the reader to see the psychological reality of the character and have access to their experiences, make the relationship between objective reality and the subject a semiotic o ne. In this sense, the epiphany is a challenge to the reader. Furthermore, the transcendental reality that it refers to is also secular, as it refers to the subjective experience as the catalyst, rather than any form of divinity as a measurement.In Dubliners, we can see that the premise of Joyces city is establish upon the idea of nationalism and modernism that was prevalent throughout Europe at his time of writing. This nationalism is personified in the city, which acts as the source of experience and reflection. In many ways, this may be understandably regarded as the replacement for the transcendental God at the heart of religious epiphanies. This is because the object of the city is given as being in natural sync with the individuals subjective experience. Essentially, it is the catalyst for the individuals semiotic relationship with the world and the source of their reflection.Essentially, the city, or city life, is the source of this transcendental epiphany, which makes it a very different environment to the objective and macabre city of some of Joyces contemporaries. In one extract, Joyce reveals this transcendental moment and how it combines with other experiential referents through the means of the epiphany. He states thatWalk along a strand, strange land, come to a city gate, sentry there old ranker too, Tweedys big moustaches leaning on a long kind of a spear. Wander through awned streets. Turband faces going by. Dark caves of carpeting shops, big man, Turko the terrible, seated cross legged smoking a coiled pipe. Cries of sellers in the streets.Drink water scented with fennel, sherbet. Wander along all day. powerfulness meet a robber or two. Well, meet him. Getting on to sundown. The shadows of the mosques along the pillars priest with a scroll rolled up. A shiver of the trees, signal, the eve wind. I pass their dark language. High wall beyond strings twanged. Night sky moon, violet, colour of Mollys new garters. Strings. Listen. A misfire pla ying one of those instruments what do you call them dulcimers. I pass. (Joyce 2007, 124)In this extract, we can once again see this shift away from any objective circumstance and move towards a reflective and subjective account of the experience. Joyce describes the city in relation to the referential meaning of each individual sign as the protagonist combines the account with their experience. This subjective and fluid account of the environment and its many innate objects is then transcended via the epiphany of the experience without reference to any God. Rather, it is the relationship with the city that evokes such the moving picture and seemingly alive narrative. Referring to this detail, literary critic Raymond Williams states thatIn Joyce, the laws and the conventions of traditional observation and communication have apparently disappeared. The consequent awareness is intense and fragmentary, subjective primarily, stock-still in the very form of its subjectivity including o thers who are now with the buildings, the noises, the sights and smells of the city, parts of this single and racing consciousness. (Williams 1973, 1)It would appear that Joyce is conscious of his use of the concept of epiphany. It would appear that in applying it in a secular manner, he is rejecting the notion of a God or objective transcendental true statement. It would seem that this is because Joyce believes that it is the experience itself and the reflection rather than response of the individual that can awaken the transcendental realm and semiotic reality that lies within experience itself. Essentially, without the notion of the epiphany, the narrative would be veering away from the truth of experience itself and would negate the very social and relative apparatus that constitutes our being.BibliographyBarry, Peter. Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory Manchester Manchester University Press, 2002.Bennet, Andrew. & Royle, Nicholas. Introduction to Literature reflection and Theory Harlow Pearson Education, 2004.Joyce, James. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man London Penguin Classics, 2003.Joyce, James. Dubliners Oxford Penguin Classics, 2007.Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City London Chatto & Windas, 1973.

Market Control: Boeing

Boeing is no doubt a market leader in the aircraft manufacturing diligence with heavy presence in virtually all continents. This places Boeing in a better place in the market tick collectible to its ability and potence to ascertain aircraft prices. Although market restrain for Boeing has not been that easy considering the stiff competition from competitors such as Airbus, mostly it is Boeing which evidently exerts a great deal of influence on the price of aircrafts. As a aftermath, Boeing has been able to combine cutting edge technology with its market position to its advantage.Although aircraft-manufacturing industry has considerably some players, a few(prenominal) have a global presence and can significantly have an input in the market control. Boeing happens to be among the few players who influence prices. The fact that in that location are relatively more buyers of aircrafts than there are sellers especially of heavy and fighter airplanes means that the sellers can easil y exert market control. Considering this imbalance amidst strength of buyers and the control of the manufacturers, Boeing has come up as a market power. The ability of Boeing in market control is not only evident in price control, but in innovation of new and modern products such as custom do accommodation in the aircrafts especially targeting the business and tourist segment of market.Evidence of market control of Boeing is seen in the positively sloped supply curve which has characterized the market prices for Boeings products in the past decade. Market control has had an effect on Boeing especially considering that, all of the functions of management such as cooking organizing, coordinating and controlling are pegged on market performance. Market control has seen profits for Boeing stabilize which means the management of Boeing can strategically plan for expansion programs and other programs with certainty.With market control, it is easier to estimate sales volume with certai nty, and therefore planning for staff needs becomes easy for Boeing as well as the organization of Boeings organizational structures. It becomes easier for the management of Boeing to control its internal processes as well as its external process due to its market control ability. Market control has made it possible for Boeing to source and maintain highly motivated staff due to the fact that Boeing has been able to maximize profits.The market control especially on aircraft prices by Boeing portents the danger of pushing small competitors out of business. As a result of market control by Boeing, there lacks perfect control as Boeing together with a few other industry big players continue to read small firms out of business and therefore denying the buyers the freedom of choice as well as the satisfaction that comes with the freedom of choice. Market control has resulted into a closely monopoly situation in the aircraft manufacturing industry although in actual sense, Boeings envir onment is oligopoly.Market control by Boeing has resulted into a situation whereby, due to lack of many potential substitutes, Boeing continues to exert influence in pricing, making its prices some of the most exorbitant in the market. On the other hand, market control has seen Boeing grow into a very profitable organization therefore creating benefits to the society by providing job opportunities as well as by engaging in sponsorship programs in the society.As a result of the market control mechanism employed by Boeing, decision-making process has become easy, as delegation is possible. Market control mechanisms at Boeing has made it possible for the management at Boeing to execute its organizing, planning, coordinating and controlling functions easily as the market is friendly, less turbulent and predictable. Despite the sustained competition from Airbus, Boeing unagitated commands market control and it should be able to regain some of the market share it has lost to Airbus in th e past few years.Referencehttp//www.iht.com/articles/2005/01/13/aribus_ed3._.php Accessed on 8/4/2007.www.tau.ac.il/razin/Airbus%20versus%20Boeing%20revisited.doc Accessed on 8/4/2007.

Disney Company

External EnvironmentThe Disney caller-out is renowned throughout the world as a leading media and entertainment troupe in the world. The impertinent environment for this company is vast and has several effects on the companys operations and performance and progress. The environment includes competitors such as News slew and AOL Time Warner Inc, resources, technology, and the economic circumstances that influence the organization.With media and entertainment companies experiencing a boom with a wider consumer and viewer base it is not easy to compete in the industry. Disney analyzes its global as well as its task environment thoroughly to fish for opportunities and threats. In the following text, we will identify two direct and two validatory forces have the potential to affect the company progress.Direct ForcesDirect forces or forces from the task environment include all those forces that are closer to the organization. They conduct casual transactions with the company and have a major influence on the companys performance and basic operations. The forces which come under this category include customers, competitors, suppliers and the labor market. We would be analyzing customers and competitors.CustomersThe Disney customers are highly important for Disney. The bargaining power of customers is as well high. The customers decide what price they are unbidden to pay for a movie, what price they are willing to pay at the entrance of Disneys theme parks and lastly but most importantly the unique customer experience they desire. Therefore customers, as recipients of Disneys services, determine the companys success and future growth.If Disney slacks any one of these three crucial touch points it would lose its market conduct to other rivals. Mottos for Disney, thus, revolve around the customers like one which reads Be so nice to the guests so that they cant believe it. Disney looks for chances to create magical moments for its customers and evermore making th em smile. Customers are what make up Disney and if it wasnt for these customers Disney wouldnt have been where it is now.CompetitorsDisney faces a range of competitors both at a local and international level. Since the Disney Company has been able to tap a very distinctive niche in the industry and has a stronghold, the barriers to entry do exist for the animated entertainment industry. in spite of these barriers competition also exists. Disney has been able to establish a mark in the movie business and the Network-television department where several powerful rivals do exist making it extremely risky.Moreover, new cartoon figures appear every day in television shows and in movie theaters overseas. The recent merger of AOL and Time Warner poses a huge threat to Disney. Moreover, Viacom and Fox Entertainment are other big competitors. In order to safeguard its position as the leading media conglomerate, Disney must continuously pose in technological and operational improvements.Ind irect ForcesIndirect forces or forces from the general environment are forces that affect the organization indirectly. It embodies the outer layer of the organizational environment. These forces arent involved with the organizations day-to-day activities but do affect the organizations progress and performance overtime. These indirect forces include several dimensions like technological, international, socio-cultural, economic and legal-political but we will boil down on technological and international dimensions.Technological DimensionThe Disney Company provides entertainment through animation and animation and technology have a very strong link. superb animation is supported through superior technology therefore it is imperative for Disney to be up-to-date with technology. With scientific and technological advancements occurring at an astounding pace it is practically hard for companies to keep up but it is crucial for them to do so. Newer competitors are using the latest world technology and providing customers with better experiences, Disney should do the same in order to maintain its position.International DimensionEvents occurring in other foreign countries also have a strong potential to affect Disneys progress. Since Disney operates theme parks in France, Japan, Hong Kong and USA and furthermore operates its own cruise line as well, events and relations with other countries are of great importance. This international environment also provides new competitors, customers and suppliers and also forms social, technological and economic trends which Disney has to adapt to.ConclusionDisney is the worlds leading entertainment company but does face many challenges and threats within its environment in foothold of direct and indirect forces which have the potential to affect its operations, performance and future growth. It is imperative for Disney to analyze these forces carefully and flex its operations and strategies in accordance to them.References chec kJones, G. R. (2007). Contemporary Management. 5th Edition, illustrated, revised. Mc Graw-Hill CompaniesWood, J. C (2002). Henri Fayol Critical evaluations in business and management. Illustrated edition. Taylor & FrancisOnline Journal/ArticleFine, J (2008). Disney Emerges a Winner. Business Week, Retrieved June 10, 2009.

Scientific Management

Course Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) module Principals of vigilance Title Explain scientific Manage tame forcet. Comment on the comp iodinnt part of this approach to the emergence of precaution thought. What atomic number 18 its limitations? 33 Submission Date eighth of March 2010 Word Count 2183 The Principal object of focus should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee (Taylor, 1947) foot The Author wholeow for discuss scientific steering under the by-line headings Section 1 An explanation on scientific attention.Section 2, The contri plainlyion of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007 355) defines scientific way as a unconscious outgrowth of systematically partitioning mesh into its smallest elements and standardising t reads to achieve maximum efficie ncy. The scientific focus approach was positive at the end of the 19th hundred its become is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory pee-pee been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth.The scientific counseling approach was set up to improve childbed productiveness by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief address at the Midvale vane Comp any his first-hand experience here led Taylor to recognise that moil productivity was largely in expeditious due to a workforce that functioned by patterns of thumb methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem blade works Company, where he employ his principles of scientific circumspection with evaluating work in a scientific manner.Taylor gained this information with his Time and Motion engage, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the trading operations and the motions runed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From k directing how big it took actually to perform each of the elements in each rail line, it would be possible To determine a really pleasure ground sidereal days work. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylors experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first be substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks.Taylor stone-broke d proclaim each part of the production process into individual tasks to chance upon task specialisation. Taylor also utilise time and motion studies to establish the most upright technique for performing each work task and giving remnant periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each disdain sector concern. Taylor hated join, and by introducing a piece- swan system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary workers accepts.Thirdly, pa noptic training and supervision to each worker must be accustomed by management to guarantee the reflect is done in a scientific modality and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the preparation and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were astray accepted and spread as far as the Soviet pith where Taylors principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-k straighta sortn applications programme of Taylors principals of scientific management was in Henry Fords Model T.Frank Gilbreth (1868 1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 1972), developed variations of Taylors scientific management, they were mostly concern with the elimination of waste and equivalent Taylor thought that a One beat Way to autory out a task could be found. Anformer(a) indorser to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylors who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and realised work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thoughtScientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and n betimes all function much expeditiously due to scientific management. In at onces economic environment scientific management is likely more than important in todays businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the next headings Scientific Study of work, give of incentives, division of exertion and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of workThe fundamental tools that result in change magnitude productivity ar time study standards and work design. For example in the production segment of any company materials are requested and controlled the sequence of operations, in spections, and methods are indomitable tools are aimed time values are assigned work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in todays society is any of the directory enquires bets, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected.Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivate by money, in todays workplace Taylors piece rate pay may flip a different name performance think pay is how its advanced trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a very basic pay and only rewards staff who jump at there jobs. According to Taylor one should pay the worker, not the job. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the soldiering that used to recall place.Division of Labour Scientif ic management gives managers control and this can be seen in umpteen of our call centres whether its directory enquires or trading the bank thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers good and consistent but it is just sophisticated day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. natural selection and training of workers Finding the best person for the job is still a challenge for many companies.Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae treat by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the job to the even out person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is urgent to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to compe titive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption.The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers movement in the most efficient way. Taylors ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observe workers, and seeking the one best way in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a human relations school of thought emerged, thought-provoking Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplification of the concept of motivation.Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that kind factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the force out management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009).The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were build on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of Taylorism. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne StudiesThe shore Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and inter screening them. The group had set there own standards and re seted their output. They had decided what th eir daily limit was and what constituted as a fair days work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayos results placed focus on the social context of work in peculiar(a), worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations.The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne put (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association mingled with labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslows Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was concerned with the issue of employee motivation and valued to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternal style of management focusing on employees social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslows pecking o rder of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with Physiological needs food and shelter golosh needs the need to pass secure Acceptance needs the need to feel accepted by others Esteem needs the need for self prise Self Actualisation the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total gauge Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes.In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day Taylorism the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the quondam(prenominal) and setting benchmarks for change. Do If your goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have versed to future activities. Act Do what you need to do to mention your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in manner of speaking times , prices and work practices. . Create exertion of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The importation is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is winced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there wont be any. 4. Move towards a virtuoso supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. base training on the job.If people are inadequately trained, they will not all work the same way, and this will move into variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because i t prevents workers from acting in the organisations best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the internal customer, that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. stub out slogans.Another central TQM idea is that its not people who make most mistakes its the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfaction. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyones job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management.Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for wor kers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a degree centigrade and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylors track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific management theories discussed to a higher place evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar preserve of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related celestial spheres mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution.Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In terminus there is no single best strategy or style of management. The best solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan, .Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York McGraw-Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA second Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & MacmillanScientific ManagementWhile this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an refer on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage place and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or bequeath alternative management theories in rejoinder to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management.Taylors apotheosiss have however been under constant examen as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to change magnitude productivity, it basically works by dehumanising workers and scr eening them simply as an appendage of machinery. Caldari argues (2007 61) that Taylors ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace.While Taylors theories have been lawsuit to many lit crits, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the guesswork involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007 58).This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, later maximising profits.Therefore, although Taylors contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice system influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and execution of tasks (Darmody, 2007 1). careless(predicate) of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the persuasion that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of worke rs.Taylors search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and ameliorate employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995 2) argues scientific management primarily Taylors thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today.In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007 64) emphasises that Taylor naively pretended that with less, but more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the capableness of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price.Caldari cites Marshall (2007 66) saying that trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive team like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees.As Caldari (2007) points out, managers can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of c apital. (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freemans word of honor (1996 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylors mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticisms ofScientific management revolve around it being anti-worker, scientific management and democratic management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of inaugural importance, Taylors ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumental in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits.Freeman highlights (1996 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the i nterests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylors ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylors methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps.Taylors scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a specified target.While these theories were sooner implemented in businesses such as Henry Fords car manufacturing, we can see that these processes come up to benefit managers today both in that ve ry same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks.It has been highlighted that although Taylors scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in todays management practices, elements of Taylors theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce.Taylor was instrumental for creating a new paradigm of management thinking and the scientific management theory does, and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007 1). Caldari, K. (2007). Alfred Marshalls critical analysis of scient ific management. The European Journal of the invoice of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). Henry L.Gantt and Frederick Taylor The Pioneers of Scientific Management. AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management Core Concepts and Skills in Management, John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) Dont throw scientific management out with the bathwater. _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) Fads, stereotypes and management gurus Fayol and Follett today. Management Decision, 43(10), 1335.Scientific ManagementCourse Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) Module Principals of Management Title Explain Scientific Management. Comment on the contribution of this approach to the development of management thought. What are its limitations? 33 Submission Date 8th of March 2010 Word Count 2183 The Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employe e (Taylor, 1947) Introduction The Author will discuss Scientific Management under the following headings Section 1 An explanation on Scientific Management.Section 2, The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007 355) defines scientific management as a process of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardising tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. The scientific management approach was developed at the end of the 19th Century its father is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory have been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth.The scientific management approach was set up to improve labour productivity by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief Engineer at the Midvale Steel Company his first-hand experience here led Taylor to reco gnise that labour productivity was largely inefficient due to a workforce that functioned by rules of thumb methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem Steel works Company, where he applied his principles of scientific management through evaluating work in a scientific manner.Taylor gained this information with his Time and Motion Study, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the operations and the motions performed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From knowing how long it took actually to perform each of the elements in each job, it would be possible To determine a really fair days work. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylors experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first being substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks.Taylor broke down each part of the production process into individual tasks to accomplish task specialisation. Taylor also used time and motion studies to establish the most proficient technique for performing each work task and giving rest periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each job. Taylor hated soldering, and by introducing a piece-rate system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary workers needs.Thirdly, comprehensive training and supervision to each worker must be given by management to guarantee the job is done in a scientific way and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the planning and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were widely accepted and spread as far as the Soviet Union where Taylors principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-known application of Taylors principals of scientific management was in Henry Fords Model T.Frank Gilbre th (1868 1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 1972), developed variations of Taylors scientific management, they were mostly concerned with the elimination of waste and like Taylor thought that a One Best Way to carry out a task could be found. Another contributor to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylors who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and completed work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thoughtScientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and nearly all function more efficiently due to scientific management. In todays economic environment scientific management is probably more important in todays businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the following headings Scientif ic Study of work, use of incentives, division of labour and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of workThe fundamental tools that result in increased productivity are time study standards and work design. For example in the production department of any company materials are requested and controlled the sequence of operations, inspections, and methods are determined tools are ordered time values are assigned work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in todays society is any of the directory enquires numbers, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected.Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivated by money, in todays workplace Taylors piece rate pay may have a different name performance related pay is how its new trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a ve ry basic pay and only rewards staff who excel at there jobs. According to Taylor one should pay the worker, not the job. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the soldiering that used to take place.Division of Labour Scientific management gives managers control and this can be seen in many of our call centres whether its directory enquires or calling the bank thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers efficient and consistent but it is just modern day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. Selection and training of workers Finding the best person for the job is still a challenge for many companies.Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae processing by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the jo b to the right person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is imperative to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to competitive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption.The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers movement in the most efficient way. Taylors ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observing workers, and seeking the one best way in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a human relations school of thought emerged, challenging Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplificat ion of the concept of motivation.Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that social factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the personnel management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009).The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were built on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of Taylorism. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Stud iesThe Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and interviewing them. The group had set there own standards and restricted their output. They had decided what their daily limit was and what constituted as a fair days work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayos results placed focus on the social context of work in particular, worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations.The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne plant (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association between labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslows Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was conce rned with the issue of employee motivation and wanted to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternalistic style of management focusing on employees social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslows hierarchy of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with Physiological needs food and shelter Safety needs the need to feel secure Acceptance needs the need to feel accepted by others Esteem needs the need for self respect Self Actualisation the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes.In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day Taylorism the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the past and setting benchmarks for change. Do If y our goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have learned to future activities. Act Do what you need to do to make your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in delivery times , prices and work practices. . Create constancy of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The implication is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is reduced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there wont be any. 4. Move towards a single supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. Institute training on the job.If people are inadequately t rained, they will not all work the same way, and this will introduce variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because it prevents workers from acting in the organisations best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the internal customer, that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. Eliminate slogans.Another central TQM idea is that its not people who make most mistakes its the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfac tion. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyones job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management.Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for workers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a century and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylors track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific manag ement theories discussed above evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar recording of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related areas mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution.Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In conclusion there is no single best strategy or style of management. The best solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan, .Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York McGraw -Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA South Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & MacmillanScientific ManagementWhile this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an impact on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage rates and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or provide alternative management theories in response to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management.Taylors ideals have however been und er constant scrutiny as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to increased productivity, it essentially works by dehumanising workers and viewing them simply as an appendage of machinery. Caldari argues (2007 61) that Taylors ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace.While Taylors theories have been subject to many criticisms, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the guesswork involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007 58).This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, subsequently maximising profits.Therefore, although Taylors contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice remains influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and exec ution of tasks (Darmody, 2007 1). Regardless of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the impression that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of workers.Taylors search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and improved employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995 2) argues scientific management primarily Taylors thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today.In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007 64) emphasises that Taylor naively assumed that with less, b ut more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the potential of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price.Caldari cites Marshall (2007 66) saying that trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive team like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees .As Caldari (2007) points out, managers can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of capital. (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freemans discussion (1996 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylors mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticisms ofScientific management revolve around it being anti-worker, scientific management and democratic management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of foremost importance, Taylors ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumenta l in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits.Freeman highlights (1996 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the interests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylors ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylors methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps.Taylors scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a speci fied target.While these theories were originally implemented in businesses such as Henry Fords car manufacturing, we can see that these processes continue to benefit managers today both in that very same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks.It has been highlighted that although Taylors scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in todays management practices, elements of Taylors theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce.Taylor was instrumental for creating a new paradigm of management thinking and the scientific management theory does , and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007 1). Caldari, K. (2007). Alfred Marshalls critical analysis of scientific management. The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). Henry L.Gantt and Frederick Taylor The Pioneers of Scientific Management. AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management Core Concepts and Skills in Management, John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) Dont throw scientific management out with the bathwater. _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) Fads, stereotypes and management gurus Fayol and Follett today. Management Decision, 43(10), 1335.